Global Positioning System
The station points used in surveying are to be identified before executing any project: For this purpose, surveyors used permanent […]
Surveying
Surveying is the art of making measurements of objects on, above or beneath the ground to show their relative positions on paper. The relative position required is either horizontal, or vertical, or both. Less precisely the term Surveying is used to the measurement of objects in their horizontal positions. Measurements to deteremine their relative vertical positions is known as levelling.
General principles of surveying
Surveying has two notable characteristics: the work is done to a much higher level of accuracy than most other engineering
Fundamental Principles of Surveying
To get accurate results in surveying one should follow the following fundamental principles: (i) Work from whole to part (ii)
Errors in Plane Table Surveying
The errors may be grouped into the instrumental and personal errors. Instrumental Errors 1. The surface of plane table not
Errors in Chaining
Errors in chaining may be classified as: (i) Personal errors (ii) Compensating errors, and (iii) Cumulating errors. Personal Errors Wrong
Electromagnetic Distance Measuring Instruments
Sun light or artificially generated electromagnetic waves consists of waves of different lengths. The spectrum of an electromagnetic wave is as
Distance measurement
5.1 General Distances may be measured by four methods: direct, optical, electromagnetic or GPS. The method used for any particular
Declination and DIP
The magnetic meridian and the true meridian may not coincide with each other in a place. The horizontal angle between these
Conventional Symbols
IS 962 1989, code of practice for architectural and building drawings has specified standard symbols for various objects as shown